View source for Directory:Franklin D. Roosevelt

{{redirect|FDR}}
{{redirect|Franklin Delano Roosevelt}}
{{Infobox President
| name=Franklin Delano Roosevelt
| image=FDR in 1933.jpg
| order=32nd [[President of the United States]]
| term_start=[[March 4]] [[1933]]
| term_end=[[April 12]] [[1945]]
| predecessor=[[Herbert Hoover]]
| successor=[[Harry S. Truman]]
| order2=44th [[Governor of New York]]
| term_start2=[[January 1]] [[1929]]
| term_end2=[[December 31]] [[1932]]
| lieutenant2=[[Herbert H. Lehman]]
| predecessor2=[[Alfred E. Smith]]
| successor2=[[Herbert H. Lehman]]
| birth_date={{birth date|1882|1|30|mf=y}}
| birth_place=[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]
| death_date={{death date and age|1945|4|12|1882|1|30}}
| death_place=[[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
| spouse=[[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
| occupation=[[Lawyer]] ([[corporate law|Corporate]])
| alma_mater=[[Harvard University]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident=[[John N. Garner]] (1933–1941),<br />[[Henry A. Wallace]] (1941–1945),<br />[[Harry S. Truman]] (1945)
| religion=[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopalian]]
| signature=Franklin D. Roosevelt signature.gif
|}}

'''Franklin Delano Roosevelt''' ([[January 30]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[April 12]], [[1945]]), often referred to by his initials '''FDR''', was the thirty-second [[President of the United States]]. Elected to four terms in office, he served from 1933 to 1945, and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms of office. He was a central figure of the 20th century during a time of worldwide economic crisis and [[world war]].

During the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] of the 1930s, Roosevelt created the [[New Deal]] to provide relief for the [[unemployment|unemployed]], recovery of the [[economy of the United States|economy]], and reform of the economic and banking systems.<ref>{{cite book
  | last = Hakim
  | first = Joy
  | authorlink = 
  | coauthors = 
  | title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz
  | publisher = Oxford University Press
  | date = 1995
  | location = New York
  | pages = 100-104
  | url = 
  | doi = 
  | id = 
  | isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }}</ref> Although recovery of the economy was incomplete until almost 1940, many programs initiated continue to have instrumental roles in the nation's commerce, such as the [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation|FDIC]], [[Tennessee Valley Authority|TVA]], and the [[United States Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]]. One of his most important legacies is the [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security system]].

Roosevelt won four presidential elections in a row, causing a realignment political scientists call the [[Fifth Party System]]. His aggressive use of the federal government re-energized the [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]], creating a [[New Deal Coalition]] which dominated American politics until the late 1960s. He and his wife, [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], remain touchstones for [[modern American liberalism]]. [[American conservatism|Conservatives]] vehemently fought back, but Roosevelt usually prevailed until he tried to [[Court packing|pack the Supreme Court]] in 1937. Thereafter, the new [[Conservative coalition]] successfully ended New Deal expansion; during the war it closed most relief programs like the [[Works Progress Administration|WPA]] and [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], arguing unemployment had disappeared.

After 1938, Roosevelt championed re-armament and led the nation away from [[isolationism]] as the world headed into [[World War II]]. He provided extensive support to [[Winston Churchill]] and the [[Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II|British war effort]] before the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] pulled the U.S. into the fighting. During the war, Roosevelt, working closely with his aide [[Harry Hopkins]], provided decisive leadership against [[Nazi Germany]] and made the United States the principal arms supplier and financier of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] who later, alongside the United States, defeated Germany, [[Italy]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]. Roosevelt led the United States as it became the [[Arsenal of Democracy]], putting sixteen million American men into uniform.

On the [[homefront]] his term saw the vast expansion of industry, the achievement of full employment, restoration of prosperity and new opportunities opened for [[African American|African-Americans]] and women. With his term came new taxes that affected all income groups, price controls and rationing, and [[relocation camp]]s for 120,000 Japanese and [[Japanese American|Japanese-Americans]] as well as thousands of Italian and German-Americans. As the Allies neared victory, Roosevelt played a critical role in shaping the post-war world, particularly through the [[Yalta Conference]] and the creation of the [[United Nations]].
Roosevelt's administration redefined American [[liberalism]] and [[Realigning election|realigned]] the [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] based on his [[New Deal coalition]] of labor unions; farmers; ethnic, religious and racial minorities; intellectuals;<ref name="Rorty">Rorty, R. (1997). ''Acheiving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth Century America''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> [[Southern United States|the South]]; big city [[Political machine|machines]]; and the poor and workers on relief.

==Personal life==
===The family name===
''Roosevelt'' is an anglicized form of the Dutch surname 'van Rosevelt,' meaning 'field of roses.'<ref name="titleROOSEVELT - Surname Meaning | Origin for the Surname Roosevelt Genealogy">{{cite web |url=http://genealogy.about.com/library/surnames/r/bl_name-ROOSEVELT.htm |title=ROOSEVELT - Surname Meaning, Origin for the Surname Roosevelt Genealogy |accessdate=2007-11-23}}</ref> Although some use an Anglicized [[spelling pronunciation]] of [ru:zəvɛlt], that is, with the vowel of ''rue'' or ''root'', while Franklin used [roʊzəvəlt], with the vowel of English ''rose''.

While most tend to pronounce the last syllable with the vowel of English ''felt'', newsreels show FDR's tendency to use a ''schwa''; thus he pronounced it often "rose-vult."{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

One the wealthiest and oldest families in [[New York]] State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in areas other than politics.  Franklin's first cousin, [[Ellen Roosevelt]], was the [[1890 U.S. National Championships (tennis)|1890 U.S. Open Championships]] women's singles and doubles champion and is a member of the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]].

===Early life ===
{{see also|Roosevelt family|Delano family}}

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on [[January 30]] [[1882]] in the [[Hudson Valley]] town of [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]]. His father, [[James Roosevelt, Sr.|James Roosevelt]], and his mother, [[Sara Roosevelt|Sara Ann Delano]], were each from wealthy old New York families, of [[Dutch-Americans|Dutch]] and [[French American|French]] ancestry respectively. Franklin was their only child. His paternal grandmother, Mary Rebecca Aspinwall, was a first cousin of [[Elizabeth Kortright Monroe]], wife of the fifth U.S. President, [[James Monroe]]. One of his ancestors was John Lothropp, also an ancestor of [[Benedict Arnold]] and [[Joseph Smith]], Jr. One of his distant relatives from his mother's side is the author [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]]. His maternal grandfather, Warren Delano, Jr., a descendant of ''[[Mayflower]]'' passengers [[Richard Warren]], [[Isaac Allerton]], [[Degory Priest]], and [[Francis Cooke]], made a fortune in the [[opium trade]] in [[China]].<ref>Patrick D. Reagan, ''Designing a New America: The Origins of New Deal Planning, 1890–1943'' (2000) p. 29</ref>

[[Image:Fdrwithparents.jpg|right|thumb|Young Franklin Roosevelt, with his father and Helen R. Roosevelt, sailing in 1899.]]
Roosevelt grew up in an atmosphere of privilege. Sara was a possessive mother, while James was an elderly and remote father (he was 54 when Franklin was born). Sara was the dominant influence in Franklin's early years.<ref>''Eleanor and Franklin'', Lash (1971), 111 et seq.</ref> Frequent trips to [[Europe]] made Roosevelt conversant in [[German language|German]] and [[French language|French]]. He learned to ride, [[shooting sports|shoot]], [[rowing (sport)|row]], and play [[polo]] and [[tennis|lawn tennis]].

Roosevelt went to [[Groton School]], an [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] boarding school in [[Massachusetts]]. He was heavily influenced by the headmaster, [[Endicott Peabody (educator)|Endicott Peabody]], who preached the duty of [[Christianity|Christians]] to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Roosevelt completed his undergraduate studies at [[Harvard University|Harvard]], where he lived in luxurious quarters and was a member of the [[Alpha Delta Phi]] fraternity. While at Harvard, his fifth cousin [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became president, and Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero. In 1902, he met his future wife [[Eleanor Roosevelt|Anna Eleanor Roosevelt]], Theodore's niece, at a [[White House]] reception. (They had previously met as children, but this was their first serious encounter.) Eleanor and Franklin were fifth cousins, once removed.<ref name="5thcousins">{{cite web | url = http://www.nps.gov/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q6.htm | title = Question: How was ER related to FDR? |publisher = The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers | accessdate = 2007-07-29}}</ref> They were both descended from Claes Martensz van Rosenvelt (Roosevelt) who arrived in [[New Amsterdam]] ([[Manhattan]]) from [[the Netherlands]] in the 1640s. Roosevelt's two grandsons, Johannes and Jacobus, began the Long Island and Hudson River branches of the Roosevelt family, respectively. Eleanor and President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] were descended from the Johannes branch, while FDR was descended from the Jacobus branch.<ref name="5thcousins">{{cite web |url = http://www.nps.gov/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q6.htm | title = Question: How was ER related to FDR? |publisher = The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers | accessdate = 2007-07-29}}</ref>

Roosevelt entered [[Columbia Law School]] in 1905, but dropped out (never to graduate) in 1907 because he had passed the New York State Bar exam. In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious [[Wall Street]] firm of [[Carter Ledyard & Milburn]], dealing mainly with [[corporate law]].

===Marriage and family life===
{{see also|Roosevelt family}}
On [[March 17]] [[1905]], Roosevelt married [[Eleanor Roosevelt|Eleanor]] despite the fierce resistance of his mother. Eleanor's uncle, [[Theodore Roosevelt]], stood in at the wedding for Eleanor's deceased father [[Elliott Roosevelt I|Elliott]]. The young couple moved into [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|Springwood]], his family's estate, where FDR's mother became a frequent house guest, much to Eleanor's chagrin. Franklin was a charismatic, handsome and socially active man. In contrast, Eleanor was shy and disliked social life, and at first stayed at home to raise their children. They had six children in rapid succession:
*[[Anna E. Roosevelt|Anna Eleanor]] (1906&ndash;1975),
*[[James Roosevelt|James]] (1907&ndash;1991),
*Franklin Delano, Jr. ([[March 3]] [[1909]]&ndash;[[November 7]] [[1909]]),
*[[Elliott Roosevelt|Elliott]] (1910&ndash;1990),
*a second [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr.|Franklin Delano, Jr.]] (1914&ndash;1988), and
*[[John Aspinwall Roosevelt|John Aspinwall]] (1916&ndash;1981).

[[Image:ER FDR Campobello 1903.jpg|thumb|right|Franklin and Eleanor at Campobello Island, Canada, in 1905.]]
Roosevelt had affairs outside his marriage, including one with Eleanor's social secretary [[Lucy Mercer]], with whom Roosevelt began an affair soon after she was hired in early 1914. In September 1918, Eleanor found letters revealing the affair in Roosevelt's luggage. Eleanor confronted him with the letters and demanded a divorce. They reconciled after a fashion with the informal mediation of Roosevelt's adviser [[Louis Howe]],<ref>Morgan, p. 208.</ref> but Eleanor established a separate house in Hyde Park at [[Valkill]]. Their marriage has been labeled a "marriage of convenience."<ref name="abcnews">{{cite web | url = http://www.abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=3751714&page=1 | title = Not in My White House: French-Style Divorce Unthinkable Here | publisher = ''ABC News'' | accessdate = 2007-10-19}}</ref>

The five surviving Roosevelt children all led tumultuous lives overshadowed by their famous parents. They had among them nineteen marriages, fifteen divorces and twenty-nine children. All four sons were officers in [[World War II]] and were decorated, on merit, for bravery. Their postwar careers, whether in business or politics, were disappointing.<ref name="james">{{cite web |date=2003 | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/roosevelt-james-son.htm | title = James Roosevelt | publisher = Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site | accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref><ref name="elliott">{{cite web |date=2003 | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/roosevelt-elliott-son.htm | title = Elliott Roosevelt | publisher = Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site | accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref><ref name="fdrjr">{{cite web |date=2003 | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/roosevelt-franklin-jr.htm | title = Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr. | publisher = Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site | accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref><ref name="johna">{{cite web |date=2003 | url = http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/roosevelt-john.htm | title = John A. Roosevelt | publisher = Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site | accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref> Two of them were elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]&mdash;FDR, Jr. served three terms representing the Upper West Side of Manhattan, and James served six terms representing the 26th district in [[California]]&mdash;but none were elected to higher office despite several attempts.

==Early political career==
===State Senator===
In 1910, Roosevelt ran for the [[New York State Senate]] from the district around [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]] in [[Dutchess County, New York|Dutchess County]], which had not elected a Democrat since 1884. He entered the Roosevelt name, with its associated wealth, prestige and influence in the Hudson Valley, and the Democratic landslide that year carried him to the state capital of [[Albany, New York|Albany]], [[New York]]. Roosevelt entered the state house, [[January 1]], [[1911]]. He became a leader of a group of reformers who opposed Manhattan's [[Tammany Hall]] [[Political machine|machine]] which dominated the state Democratic Party. Roosevelt soon became a popular figure among New York Democrats. Reelected for a second term [[November 5]], [[1912]], he resigned from the New York State Senate on [[March 17]], [[1913]].<ref name="navyreward">{{cite web |url=http://www.feri.org/common/news/info_detail.cfm?ClientID=11005&QID=2045 |title=
FDR Biography - Early Political Career |publisher = Franklin & Eleanor Roosevelt Institute |accessdate=2008-03-04}}</ref><ref name="tammany">{{cite web |url=http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/fdr/section2.rhtml |title=
Roosevelt's Entry Into Politics |work= Franklin D. Roosevelt |publisher = Spark Notes |accessdate=2008-03-04}}</ref>

[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg|thumb|right|FDR as Assistant Secretary for the Navy.]]

===Assistant Secretary of the Navy===
Franklin D. Roosevelt was appointed [[Assistant Secretary of the Navy|Assistant Secretary]] of the [[United States Navy|Navy]] by [[Woodrow Wilson]] in 1913. He served under [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[Josephus Daniels]]. In 1914, he was defeated in the Democratic [[primary election]] for the [[United States Senate]] by Tammany Hall-backed [[James W. Gerard]]. As assistant secretary, Roosevelt worked to expand the Navy and founded the [[United States Navy Reserve]]. Wilson sent the Navy and [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] to intervene in [[Central America]]n and [[Caribbean]] countries. In a series of speeches in his [[United States presidential election, 1920|1920 campaign]] for Vice President, Roosevelt claimed that he, as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, had played a significant role in Latin American politics and had even written the constitution which the U.S. imposed on [[Haiti]] in 1915.<ref>[[Arthur Schlesinger]], ''The Crisis of the Old Order'', 364, citing to 1920 Roosevelt Papers for speeches in Spokane, San Francisco, and Centralia. The remark was at best a politically awkward overstatement and caused some controversy in the campaign.</ref>

Roosevelt developed a life-long affection for the [[Navy]]. He showed great administrative talent and quickly learned to negotiate with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the [[submarine]] and also of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a [[naval mine|mine]] barrier across the [[North Sea]] from [[Norway]] to [[Scotland]]. In 1918, he visited [[UK|Britain]] and France to inspect American naval facilities; during this visit he met [[Winston Churchill]] for the first time. With the end of [[World War I]] in November 1918, he was in charge of demobilization, although he opposed plans to completely dismantle the Navy. In July 1920, Roosevelt resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Navy.

===Campaign for Vice-President===
The 1920 [[Democratic National Convention]] chose Roosevelt as the candidate for [[Vice President of the United States]] on the ticket headed by Governor [[James M. Cox]] of [[Ohio]], helping build a national base, but the Cox-Roosevelt ticket was heavily defeated by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Warren Harding]] in the [[United States presidential election, 1920|presidential election]]. Roosevelt then retired to a New York legal practice, but few doubted that he would soon run for public office again.

===Paralytic illness===
[[Image:Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg|thumb|One of only a few known photographs of Roosevelt in a wheelchair.]]
{{Main|Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness}}
In August 1921, while the Roosevelts were vacationing at [[Campobello Island, New Brunswick]], Roosevelt contracted an illness, at the time believed to be [[poliomyelitis|polio]], which resulted in Roosevelt's total and permanent paralysis from the waist down. For the rest of his life, Roosevelt refused to accept that he was permanently paralyzed. He tried a wide range of therapies, including hydrotherapy, and, in 1926, he purchased a resort at [[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], where he founded a hydrotherapy center for the treatment of polio patients which still operates as the [[Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation]]. After he became President, he helped to found the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (now known as the [[March of Dimes]]). His leadership in this organization is one reason he is commemorated on the [[Dime (United States coin)|dime]].

At the time, when the private lives of public figures were subject to less scrutiny than they are today, Roosevelt was able to convince many people that he was in fact getting better, which he believed was essential if he was to run for public office again. Fitting his hips and legs with iron braces, he laboriously taught himself to walk a short distance by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane. In private, he used a wheelchair, but he was careful never to be seen in it in public. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons.

In 2003, a peer-reviewed study found that it was more likely that Roosevelt's paralytic illness was actually [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]], not poliomyelitis.<ref>Goldman, AS ''et al'', [http://www.rsmpress.co.uk/jmb_2003_v11_p232-240.pdf ''What was the cause of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's paralytic illness?'']. J Med Biogr. 11: 232–240 (2003)</ref>

==Governor of New York, 1928–1932==
{{main|Franklin D. Roosevelt's terms as Governor of New York}}
[[Image:Governor Roosevelt and Al Smith.jpg|right|thumb|Governor Roosevelt poses with Al Smith for a publicity shot in Albany, New York, 1930.]]
By 1928, Roosevelt was asked to run for governor of New York by Alfred E. Smith. He had been careful to maintain his contacts in the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and had allied himself with [[Al Smith|Alfred E. Smith]], the current governor and the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the [[United States presidential election, 1928|1928 election]].

During the 1920s Roosevelt was careful to maintain contacts and mend fences with the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], especially in New York. Although he had made his name as an opponent of New York City's [[Tammany Hall]] [[Political Machine|machine]], during the 1920s Roosevelt moderated his stance. He allied himself with [[Al Smith|Alfred E. Smith]], helping him win the election for governor of New York in 1922, and giving nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic conventions.<ref>Morgan, pp. 267, 269-72, 286-87.</ref> In 1928, as the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the [[United States presidential election, 1928|1928 election]], Smith in turn asked Roosevelt to run for governor.
While Smith lost the Presidency in a landslide, and was even defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was elected governor by a narrow margin. As a reform governor, he established a number of new social programs, and began gathering the team of advisors he would bring with him to Washington four years later, including [[Frances Perkins]] and [[Harry Hopkins]].

In the 1930 election campaign, Roosevelt faced a dilemma with respect to the Tammany Hall machine in [[New York City]]. To be re-elected, Roosevelt needed the good will of the machine; however, his Republican opponent, [[Charles H. Tuttle]], was using the corruption of the machine as an election issue. As the election approached, Roosevelt initiated investigations of the sale of judicial offices. He was elected to a second term by a margin of more than 700,000 votes.<ref>{{cite news|last=Whitman|first=Alden|title=Farley, 'Jim' to Thousands, Was the Master Political Organizer and Salesman|pages=64|publisher=The New York Times|date=[[1976-06-10]]}}</ref>

Roosevelt was a strong supporter of [[Scouting]], beginning in 1915. In 1924, he was president of the New York City Boy Scout Foundation and led the development of [[Ten Mile River Boy Scout Camp]] between 1924&ndash;1928 to serve the Scouts of New York City.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Ten Mile River Scout Camps |publisher=TMR Scout Museum |url=http://tmrmuseum.org/history/history-1924-1969.htm |accessdate=2008-02-15 }}</ref> As governor in 1930, the [[Boy Scouts of America]] (BSA) honored him with their highest award for adults, the [[Silver Buffalo Award]], which is given to support for youth on a national level. Later, as U.S. president, Roosevelt supported the first [[National Scout jamboree (Boy Scouts of America)|national jamboree]] in 1937, and was a honorary president of the BSA.<ref>{{cite web | last =Campbell | first =Thomas P. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2003 | url =http://www.scoutingmagazine.org/issues/0303/d-wwas.html | title =A Best Friend in the White House | format = | work =[[Scouting (magazine)|Scouting]] | publisher =Boy Scouts of America | accessdate = }}</ref>

==1932 presidential election==
{{main|United States presidential election, 1932}}
Roosevelt's strong base in the most populous state made him an obvious candidate for the Democratic nomination, which was hotly contested since it seemed that incumbent [[Herbert Hoover]] would be vulnerable in the [[United States presidential election, 1932|1932 election]]. Al Smith was supported by some city bosses, but had lost control of the New York Democratic party to Roosevelt. Roosevelt built his own national coalition with personal allies such as newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], Irish leader [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and California leader [[William G. McAdoo]]. When [[Texas]] leader [[John Nance Garner]] switched to FDR, he was given the vice presidential nomination.

In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared:

{{cquote|''Throughout the nation men and women, forgotten in the [[political philosophy]] of the Government, look to us here for guidance and for more equitable opportunity to share in the [[Distribution of wealth|distribution of national wealth]]… I pledge myself to a [[New Deal|new deal]] for the American people. This is more than a [[political campaign]]. It is a call to arms.''<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,743953,00.html The Roosevelt Week], ''[[TIME magazine]]'', July 11, 1932</ref>}}

The election campaign was conducted under the shadow of the [[Great Depression in the United States]], and the new alliances which it created. Roosevelt and the Democratic Party mobilized the expanded ranks of the poor as well as organized labor, ethnic minorities, urbanites, and Southern whites, crafting the [[New Deal coalition]]. During the campaign, Roosevelt said: "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people", coining a slogan that was later adopted for his legislative program as well as his new coalition.<ref>''Great Speeches'', Franklin D Roosevelt (1999) at 17.</ref>

Economist [[Marriner Eccles]] observed that "given later developments, the campaign speeches often read like a giant misprint, in which Roosevelt and Hoover speak each other's lines."<ref>Kennedy, 102.</ref> Roosevelt denounced Hoover's failures to restore prosperity or even halt the downward slide, and he ridiculed Hoover's huge deficits. Roosevelt campaigned on the Democratic platform advocating "immediate and drastic reductions of all public expenditures," "abolishing useless commissions and offices, consolidating bureaus and eliminating extravagances reductions in bureaucracy," and for a "sound currency to be maintained at all hazards." On September 23, Roosevelt made the gloomy evaluation that, "Our industrial plant is built; the problem just now is whether under existing conditions it is not overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been reached."<ref> ''Great Speeches'', Franklin D Roosevelt (1999).</ref> Hoover damned that pessimism as a denial of "the promise of American life&nbsp;... the counsel of despair."<ref>More, ''The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America,'' (2002) p. 5.</ref> The prohibition issue solidified the wet vote for Roosevelt, who noted that repeal would bring in new tax revenues.

Roosevelt won 57% of the vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932-36 elections a [[realigning election]] that created a new majority coalition for the Democrats, thus transforming American politics and starting what is called the "New Deal Party System" or (by political scientists) the [[Fifth Party System]].<ref> Bernard Sternsher, "The Emergence of the New Deal Party System: A Problem in Historical Analysis of Voter Behavior," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'', Vol. 6, No. 1 (Summer, 1975), pp. 127-149</ref>

After the election, Roosevelt refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to come up with a joint program to stop the downward spiral, claiming it would tie his hands. The economy spiralled downward until the banking system began a complete nationwide shutdown as Hoover's term ended. In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt (which killed Chicago Mayor [[Anton Cermak]] sitting next to him).<ref> Freidel (1973) 3:170–73</ref> Roosevelt leaned heavily on his "Brain Trust" of academic advisors, especially [[Raymond Moley]] when designing his policies; he offered cabinet positions to numerous candidates (sometimes two at a time), but most declined. The cabinet member with the strongest independent base was [[Cordell Hull]] at State. [[William Hartman Woodin]] at Treasury, was soon replaced by the much more powerful [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]]<ref> Freidel (1973) v. 4:145ff</ref>

==First term, 1933–1937==
{{see also|New Deal}}
[[Image:Roosevelt inauguration 1932.jpg|right|thumb|President and Mrs. Roosevelt on Inauguration Day, 1933.]]
When Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933, the U.S. was at the [[wikt:nadir|nadir]] of the worst depression in its history. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed. Farmers were in deep trouble as prices fell by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million were homeless. By the evening of [[March 4]], 32 of the 48 states, as well as the District of Columbia had closed their banks.<ref>Jonathan Alter, ''The Defining Moment'' (2006), p. 190.</ref> The New York Federal Reserve Bank was unable to open on the 5th, as huge sums had been withdrawn by panicky customers in previous days.<ref name="SEK">{{cite web |last=Kennedy|first=Susan Estabrook |url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,745289,00.html |date= Mar 13, 1933 |title= Bottom (The Banking Crisis of 1933)|publisher=Time Magazine|accessdate=2008-03-02}}</ref> Beginning with his inauguration address, Roosevelt began blaming the economic crisis on bankers and financiers, the quest for profit, and the self-interest basis of capitalism:
{{cquote|Primarily this is because rulers of the exchange of mankind's goods have failed through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have admitted their failure, and have abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men. True they have tried, but their efforts have been cast in the pattern of an outworn tradition. Faced by failure of credit they have proposed only the lending of more money. Stripped of the lure of profit by which to induce our people to follow their false leadership, they have resorted to exhortations, pleading tearfully for restored confidence....The money changers have fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization. We may now restore that temple to the ancient truths. The measure of the restoration lies in the extent to which we apply social values more noble than mere monetary profit.}}<ref name="bartleby">{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres49.html |title=Franklin D. Roosevelt - First Inaugural Address |work= Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States |publisher=Bartleby.com |accessdate=2008-03-02}}</ref> Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as "relief, recovery and reform". Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal. Reform meant long-term fixes of what was wrong, especially with the financial and banking systems. Roosevelt's series of radio talks, known as [[fireside chats]], presented his proposals directly to the American public.<ref>Leuchtenburg, (1963) ch 1, 2</ref>

===First New Deal, 1933–1934===
Roosevelt's "[[New Deal#The First Hundred Days|First 100 Days]]" concentrated on the first part of his strategy: immediate relief. From [[March 9]] to [[June 16]] [[1933]], he sent Congress a record number of bills, all of which passed easily. To propose programs, Roosevelt relied on leading [[United States Senate|Senators]] such as [[George Norris]], [[Robert F. Wagner]] and [[Hugo Black]], as well as his own [[Brain Trust]] of academic advisers. Like Hoover, he saw the Depression as partly a matter of confidence, caused in part by people no longer spending or investing because they were afraid to do so. He therefore set out to restore confidence through a series of dramatic gestures.

FDR's natural air of confidence and optimism did much to reassure the nation. His inauguration on [[March 4]] [[1933]] occurred in the middle of a [[Bank run|bank panic]], hence the backdrop for his famous words: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself."<ref name="bankrun">{{cite web |last=Roosevelt |first = Franklin Delano |url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt%27s_First_Inaugural_Address | title = First Inaugral Address | publisher = Wikisource | accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref> The very next day he declared a "bank holiday" and announced a plan to allow banks to reopen. However, the number of banks that opened their doors after the "holiday" was less than the number that had been open before.<ref>Samuelson, Paul Anthony (1964). ''Readings in Economics.'' McGraw-Hill. p. 140</ref> This was his first proposed step to recovery.

[[Image:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|thumb|[[Dorothea Lange]]'s ''Migrant Mother'' depicts destitute pea pickers during the depression in California, centering on [[Florence Owens Thompson]], a mother of seven children, age 32, March 1936.]]
* Relief measures included the continuation of Hoover's major relief program for the unemployed under the new name, [[Federal Emergency Relief Administration]]. The most popular of all New Deal agencies, and Roosevelt's favorite, was the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed young men to work on rural local projects. Congress also gave the [[Federal Trade Commission]] broad new regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt expanded a Hoover agency, the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]], making it a major source of financing to railroads and industry. Roosevelt made agriculture relief a high priority and set up the first [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). The AAA tried to force higher prices for commodities by paying farmers to take land out of crops and to cut herds.
* Reform of the economy was the goal of the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] (NIRA) of 1933. It tried to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to come up with codes that established the rules of operation for all firms within specific industries, such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the codes which were then approved by NIRA officials. Industry needed to raise wages as a condition for approval. Provisions encouraged unions and suspended [[anti-trust]] laws. The NIRA was found to be unconstitutional by unanimous decision of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] on [[May 27]] [[1935]]. Roosevelt opposed the decision, saying "The fundamental purposes and principles of the NIRA are sound. To abandon them is unthinkable. It would spell the return to industrial and labor chaos."<ref> Ellis Hawley, ''The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly'' (1966) p. 124</ref> In 1933, major new banking regulations were passed. In 1934, the [[United States Securities and Exchange Commission|Securities and Exchange Commission]] was created to regulate Wall Street, with 1932 campaign fundraiser [[Joseph P. Kennedy]] in charge.
* Recovery was pursued through "pump-priming" (that is, federal spending). The NIRA included $3.3 billion of spending through the [[Public Works Administration]] to stimulate the economy, which was to be handled by [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior Secretary]] [[Harold L. Ickes|Harold Ickes]]. Roosevelt worked with Republican Senator [[George Norris]] to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history, the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA), which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken [[Tennessee Valley]]. The repeal of [[prohibition]] also brought in new tax revenues and helped him keep a major campaign promise.
* In a controversial move, Roosevelt gave executive order No. 6102 which made all privately held gold of American citizens property of the US Treasury. This gold confiscation by executive order was argued to be unconstitutional, but Roosevelt's executive order asserts authority to do so based on the "War Time Powers Act" of 1917. Gold bullion remained illegal for Americans to own until President Ford rescinded the order in 1974.<ref name="blanchard">{{cite web |url = http://www.blanchardonline.com/beru/confiscation_again.php | title = Gold Confiscation: Will it happen again? | publisher = Blanchard Online| accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref><ref name="privateer">{{cite web |url = http://www.the-privateer.com/1933-gold-confiscation.html | title = The Gold Confiscation Of April 5, 1933 | publisher = The Privateer Gold Pages| accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref><ref name="safehaven1">{{cite web |last=Gnazzo |first= Douglas V.|url = http://www.safehaven.com/article-3699.htm | title = Gold Confiscation | publisher = Safehaven| accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref><ref name="safehaven2">{{cite web |last=Willis|first= Kent |url = http://www.safehaven.com/article-2248.htm | title = The Gold Confiscation Issue: History And Future Predictions | publisher = Safehaven| accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref>

Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the regular federal budget, including 40% cuts to veterans' benefits and cuts in overall military spending. He removed 500,000 veterans and widows from the pension rolls and slashed benefits for the remainder. Protests erupted, led by the [[Veterans of Foreign Wars]]. Roosevelt held his ground, but when the angry veterans formed a coalition with Senator [[Huey Long]] and passed a huge bonus bill over his veto, he was defeated. He succeeded in cutting federal salaries and the military and naval budgets. He reduced spending on research and education&mdash;there was no New Deal for science until [[World War II]] began.

Roosevelt also kept his promise to push for repeal of [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]]. In April 1933, he issued an Executive Order redefining 3.2% alcohol as the maximum allowed. That order was preceded by Congressional action in the drafting and passage of the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|21st Amendment]], which was ratified later that year.

===Second New Deal, 1935–1936===
[[Image:Dust Storm Texas 1935.jpg|left|thumb|Dust storms were frequent during the 30s; this one occurred in Texas in 1935. See [[Dust Bowl|the Dust Bowl]].]]After the 1934 Congressional elections, which gave Roosevelt large majorities in both houses, there was a fresh surge of New Deal legislation. These measures included the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA) which set up a national relief agency that employed two million family heads. However, even at the height of WPA employment in 1938, unemployment was still 12.5% according to figures from Michael Darby.<ref>Darby, Michael R.''Three and a half million U.S. Employees have been mislaid: or, an Explanation of Unemployment, 1934–1941.'' Journal of Political Economy 84, no. 1 (1976): 1–16.</ref> The [[Social Security Act]], established [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor and the sick. Senator [[Robert F. Wagner|Robert Wagner]] wrote the [[Wagner Act]], which officially became the [[National Labor Relations Act]]. The act established the federal rights of workers to organize unions, to engage in [[collective bargaining]], and to take part in strikes.

While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by [[Al Smith]], fought back with the [[American Liberty League]], savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with [[Marx]] and [[Lenin]].<ref>Fried, ''Roosevelt and his Enemies'' (2001), p. 120-123.</ref> But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, setting Roosevelt up for the 1936 landslide.<ref>Id.</ref> By contrast, the labor unions, energized by the Wagner Act, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's reelections in 1936, 1940 and 1944.<ref>Leuchtenberg 1963 </ref>

===Economic environment===
''See also: [[Unemployment#New Deal in USA, 1933-40|Unemployment and the New Deal]] and [[Great Depression in the United States#Effects|Effects of the Great Depression]]''

Government spending increased from 8.0% of gross national product (GNP) [[Herbert Hoover#Economy|under Hoover]] in 1932 to 10.2% of the GNP in 1936. Because of the depression, the [[national debt]] as a percentage of the GNP had doubled under Hoover from 16% to 33.6% of the GNP in 1932. While Roosevelt balanced the "regular" budget, the emergency budget was funded by debt, which increased to 40.9% in 1936, and then remained level until World War II, at which time it escalated rapidly. The national debt rose under Hoover, held steady under FDR until the war began, as shown on chart 1.<ref>''Historical Statistics'' (1976) series Y457, Y493, F32.</ref> [[Image:Debt1929-50.jpg|thumb|475px|right|National debt from four years before Roosevelt took office to five years after the time that he died in office]]

Deficit spending had been recommended by some economists, most notably by [[John Maynard Keynes]] of Britain. Some economists in retrospect have argued that the [[National Labor Relations Act]] and [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] were ineffective policies because they relied on price fixing.<ref>Parker.</ref> The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940 in 8 years of peacetime, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in 5 years of wartime. However, the economic recovery did not absorb all the unemployment Roosevelt inherited. Unemployment fell dramatically in Roosevelt's first term, from 25% when he took office to 14.3% in 1937. Afterward, however, it increased to 19.0% in 1938 ('a depression within a depression'), 17.2% in 1939 because of various added taxation ([[Undistributed profits tax]] in Mar. 1936, and the [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] Payroll Tax 1937, plus the effects of the [[Wagner Act]]; the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]] and a blizzard of other federal regulations), and stayed high until it almost vanished during [[World War II]] when the previously unemployed were [[Conscription in the United States|conscripted]], taking them out of the potential [[labor supply]] number.<ref>Smiley 1983.</ref>

During the war, the economy operated under such different conditions that comparison with peacetime is impossible. However, Roosevelt saw the New Deal policies as central to his legacy, and in his 1944 [[State of the Union Address]], he advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a [[Second Bill of Rights]].

The [[Economy of the United States|U.S. economy]] grew rapidly during Roosevelt's term.<ref>''Historical Stats. U.S.'' (1976) series F31</ref> However, coming out of the depression, this growth was accompanied by continuing high levels of [[Unemployment rate#New Deal in USA, 1933-40|unemployment]]; as the median joblessness rate during the New Deal was 17.2%. Throughout his entire term, including the war years, average unemployment was 13%.<ref>''Historical Statistics US'' (1976) series D-86; Smiley 1983</ref><ref>Smiley, Gene, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s," Journal of Economic History, June 1983, 43, 487–93.</ref> Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://graphics7.nytimes.com/images/2003/07/02/business/03JOBSch450.gif |publisher=The New York Times |title=Presidents and job growth |accessdate=2006-05-20}}</ref>

Roosevelt did not raise [[income taxes]] before [[World War II]] began; however [[payroll tax]]es were also introduced to fund the new [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] program in 1937. He also got [[United States Congress|Congress]] to spend more on many various programs and projects never before seen in American history. However, under the revenue pressures brought on by the depression, most states added or increased taxes, including sales as well as income taxes. Roosevelt's proposal for new taxes on corporate savings were highly controversial in 1936–37, and were rejected by Congress. During the war he pushed for even higher income tax rates for individuals (reaching a marginal tax rate of 91%) and corporations and a cap on high salaries for executives. In order to fund the war, Congress broadened the base so that almost every employee paid federal [[income taxes]], and introduced [[withholding taxes]] in 1943.

[[Image:Gdp29-41.jpg|thumb|right|475px|GDP in United States January 1929 to January 1941]]<table class="wikitable">
<TR> <TD colspan=3 align=center>
 '''Unemployment''' (% labor force)</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 Year</TD> <TD>
 Lebergott</TD><TD>
 Darby<ref>Derby counts WPA workers as employed; Lebergott as unemployed
source: ''Historical Statistics US'' (1976) series D-86; Smiley 1983 Smiley, Gene, "Recent Unemployment Rate Estimates for the 1920s and 1930s," ''Journal of Economic History,'' June 1983, 43, 487–93.</ref></TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1933</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,24.9">
 24.9</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,20.6">
 20.6</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1934</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,21.7">
 21.7</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,16">
 16.0</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1935</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,20.1">
 20.1</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,14.2">
 14.2</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1936</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,16.9">
 16.9</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,9.9">
 9.9</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1937</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,14.3">
 14.3</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,9.1">
 9.1</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1938</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,19">
 19.0</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,12.5">
 12.5</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1939</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,17.2">
 17.2</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,11.3">
 11.3</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1940</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,14.6">
 14.6</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,9.5">
 9.5</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1941</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,9.9">
 9.9</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,8">
 8.0</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1942</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,4.7">
 4.7</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,4.7">
 4.7</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1943</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,1.9">
 1.9</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,1.9">
 1.9</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1944</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,1.2">
 1.2</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,1.2">
 1.2</TD> </TR>
<TR> <TD>
 1945</TD> <TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,1.9">
 1.9</TD><TD QP::NUMFORMAT:="97,-1,1.9">
 1.9</TD> </TR>
</table>

===Foreign policy, 1933–37===
The rejection of the [[League of Nations]] treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of [[isolationism]] from world organizations in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Cordell Hull]] acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. Roosevelt's "bombshell" message to the world monetary conference in 1933 effectively ended any major efforts by the world powers to collaborate on ending the worldwide depression, and allowed Roosevelt a free hand in economic policy.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) pp 199–203.</ref>

The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the [[Good Neighbor Policy]], which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy towards [[Latin America]]. Since the [[Monroe Doctrine]] of 1823, this area had been seen as an American [[sphere of influence]]. American forces were withdrawn from [[Haiti]], and new treaties with [[Cuba]] and [[Panama]] ended their status as United States [[protectorate]]s. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the [[Montevideo Convention]] on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) pp 203–210.</ref>

===Landslide re-election, 1936===
{{main|United States presidential election, 1936}}
In the [[United States presidential election, 1936|1936 presidential election]], Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs against [[Kansas]] Governor [[Alf Landon]], who accepted much of the New Deal but objected that it was hostile to business and involved too much waste. Roosevelt and Garner won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except [[Maine]] and [[Vermont]]. The New Deal Democrats won even larger majorities in Congress. Roosevelt was backed by a coalition of voters which included traditional Democrats across the country, small farmers, the "[[Solid South]]", [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], [[Political machine|big city machines]], [[Labor unions in the United States#Labor History 1932-1955|labor unions]], northern [[African American]]s, [[Jew]]s, [[intellectual]]s and [[American liberalism|political liberals]]. This coalition, frequently referred to as the New Deal coalition, remained largely intact for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] until the 1960s.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) pp 183–196.</ref>

==Second term, 1937–1941==
In dramatic contrast to the first term, very little major legislation was passed in the second term. There was a [[United States Housing Authority]] (1937), a second Agricultural Adjustment Act and the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]] (FLSA) of 1938, which created the [[minimum wage]]. When the economy began to deteriorate again in late 1937, Roosevelt responded with an aggressive program of stimulation, asking Congress for $5 billion for WPA relief and public works. This managed to eventually create a peak of 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938.

The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] was the main obstacle to Roosevelt's programs during his second term, overturning many of his programs. In particular in 1935 the Court unanimously ruled that the [[National Recovery Act]] (NRA) was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to the president. Roosevelt stunned Congress in early 1937 by proposing a law allowing him to appoint five new justices, a "persistent infusion of new blood".<ref>Pusey, Merlo J. [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1958/3/1958_3_24.shtml ''F.D.R. vs. the Supreme Court''], American Heritage Magazine, April 1958,Volume 9, Issue 3</ref> This "[[court packing]]" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner, since it seemed to upset the [[separation of powers]] and give the President control over the Court. Roosevelt's proposals were defeated. The Court also drew back from confrontation with the administration by finding the Labor Relations and Social Security Acts to be constitutional. Deaths and retirements on the Supreme Court soon allowed Roosevelt to make his own appointments to the bench with little controversy. Between 1937 and 1941, he appointed eight liberal justices to the court.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) pp 231–39</ref>

Roosevelt had massive support from the rapidly growing labor unions, but now they split into bitterly feuding [[American Federation of Labor|AFL]] and [[Congress of Industrial Organizations|CIO]] factions, the latter led by [[John L. Lewis]]. Roosevelt pronounced a "plague on both your houses", but the disunity weakened the party in the elections from 1938 through 1946.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) pp 239–43.</ref>

Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress (mostly from the South), Roosevelt involved himself in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. His targets denounced Roosevelt for trying to take over the Democratic party and used the argument that they were independent to win reelection. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one target, a conservative Democrat from New York City.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963)</ref>

In the November 1938 election, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats. Losses were concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator [[Robert A. Taft|Robert Taft]] formed a [[Conservative coalition]] with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to get his domestic proposals enacted into law. The minimum wage law of 1938 was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by Congress.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) ch 11.</ref>

===Foreign policy, 1937–1941===
[[Image:Quezon Roosevelt.jpg|thumb|right|President Roosevelt welcomed President [[Manuel Quezon]], the 2nd President of the [[Philippines]], in Washington DC.]]
The rise to power of dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] in Germany aroused fears of a new world war. In 1935, at the time of Italy's [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invasion of Ethiopia]], Congress passed the [[Neutrality Act]], applying a mandatory ban on the shipment of arms from the U.S. to any combatant nation. Roosevelt opposed the act on the grounds that it penalized the victims of aggression such as Ethiopia, and that it restricted his right as President to assist friendly countries, but public support was overwhelming so he signed it. In 1937, Congress passed an even more stringent act, but when the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War]] broke out in 1937, public opinion favored [[Republic of China|China]], and Roosevelt found various ways to assist that nation.<ref> Leuchtenberg (1963) ch 12.</ref>

In October 1937, he gave the [[Quarantine Speech]] aiming to contain aggressor nations. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined."<ref name="quarantine">{{cite web |last=Roosevelt |first = Franklin Delano |url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Quarantine_Speech | title = Quarantine the Agressor| publisher = Wikisource | accessdate = 2003-03-02}}</ref> Meanwhile he secretly stepped up a program to build long range submarines that could blockade Japan.

On [[September 4]], [[1938]] in the mist of the great crisis in Europe that was to culminate in the [[Munich Agreement]], during the unveiling of a plaque in [[France]] honoring Franco-American friendship, the American Ambassador, and close friend of Roosevelt’s [[William Christian Bullitt, Jr.|William C. Bullitt]] stated that "France and the United States were united in war and peace", leading to much speculation in the press that if war did break over [[Czechoslovakia]], then the United States would join the war on the Allied side.<ref>Adamthwaite, Anthony ''France and the Coming of the Second World War 1936-1939'', London: Frank Cass, 1977 page 209.</ref> Roosevelt disallowed this interpretation of Bullitt’s remarks in a press conference on September 9, stating it was “100% wrong” the U.S. would join a “stop-Hitler bloc” under any circumstances, and made it quite clear in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral.<ref>Adamthwaite, Anthony ''France and the Coming of the Second World War 1936-1939'', London: Frank Cass, 1977 page 209.</ref> Upon [[Neville Chamberlain]]’s return to London from the Munich Conference, Roosevelt sent him a two word telegram reading “Good Man”, which has been the subject of much debate, with the majority opinion arguing that the telegram was meant to be congratulatory with the minority opinion opposing that interpretation.<ref>Caputi, Robert ''Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement'', Associated University Press, London, 2000 page 176</ref>

When [[World War II]] broke out in 1939, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance and sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily. He began a regular secret correspondence with [[Winston Churchill]] discussing ways of supporting Britain.

For foreign policy advice, Roosevelt turned to [[Harry Hopkins]], who became his chief wartime advisor. They sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the [[Lend-Lease Act]] in March 1941, allowing the U.S. to give Britain, Russia, China and others $50 billion of military supplies 1941–45. In sharp contrast to the loans of [[World War I]], there would be no repayment after the war. Roosevelt was a lifelong free trader and anti-imperialist, and ending European [[colonialism]] was one of his objectives. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with First Lord of Admiralty, Winston Churchill, who became [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] of the UK in May 1940.

In May 1940, Germany invaded [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Luxembourg]], and [[France]], leaving Britain vulnerable to invasion. Roosevelt, who was determined that Britain not be defeated, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the U.S. should risk war in helping Britain. FDR appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. The fall of [[Paris]] shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. Both parties gave support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with [[Germany]]. He successfully urged Congress to enact the first [[Selective Training and Service Act of 1940|peacetime draft]] in [[United States]] history in 1940 (it was renewed in 1941 by one vote in Congress). Roosevelt was supported by the [[Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies]], and opposed by the [[America First Committee]].<ref name="committees">{{cite web |url = http://diglib.princeton.edu/ead/eadGetDoc.xq?id=/ead/mudd/publicpolicy/MC011.EAD.xml | title = Committee to Defend America By Aiding the Allies Records, 1940-1942: Finding Aid| publisher = Princeton University Library | accessdate = 2008-03-11}}</ref>

Roosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for intervention. America should be the "[[Arsenal of Democracy]]," he told his fireside audience.<ref>[[s:Roosevelt's Fireside Chat, 29 December 1940|Full text of the speech]] from Wikisource.</ref> On September 2, 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by passing the [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement]], which gave 50 American [[destroyer]]s to Britain in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean islands and Newfoundland. This was a precursor of the March 1941 Lend-Lease agreement which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain, the [[Republic of China]] and the [[Soviet Union]].

==Third term, 1941–1945==
===Election of 1940===
{{main|United States presidential election, 1940}}
The two-term tradition had been an unwritten rule (until after his presidency) since [[George Washington]] declined to run for a third term in 1796, and both [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] were attacked for trying to obtain a third non-consecutive term. FDR systematically undercut prominent Democrats who were angling for the nomination, including two cabinet members, Secretary of State [[Cordell Hull]] and [[James Farley]], Roosevelt's campaign manager in 1932 and 1936, Postmaster General and Democratic Party chairman. Roosevelt moved the convention to Chicago where he had strong support from the city machine (which controlled the auditorium sound system). At the convention the opposition was poorly organized but Farley had packed the galleries. Roosevelt sent a message saying that he would not run, unless he was drafted, and that the delegates were free to vote for anyone. The delegates were stunned; then the loud speaker screamed "WE WANT ROOSEVELT...THE WORLD WANTS ROOSEVELT!" The delegates went wild and Roosevelt was nominated by 946 to 147. The new vice presidential nominee was [[Henry A. Wallace]], the liberal intellectual who was Secretary of Agriculture.<ref> Burns 1:408–15, 422–30; Freidel (1990) 343–6</ref>

In his campaign against Republican [[Wendell Willkie]], Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States out of war. Roosevelt won the [[United States presidential election, 1940|1940 election]] with 55% of the popular vote and 38 of the 48 states. A shift to the left within the Administration was shown by the naming of [[Henry A. Wallace]] as Vice President in place of the conservative Texan [[John Nance Garner]], who had become a bitter enemy of Roosevelt after 1937.

===Policies===
[[Image:Prince of Wales-5.jpg|thumb|left|Roosevelt and [[Winston Churchill]] meet at Argentia, Newfoundland aboard HMS ''Prince of Wales'' during their 1941 secret meeting to develop the Atlantic Charter.]]Roosevelt's third term was dominated by World War II, in Europe and in the [[Pacific War|Pacific]]. Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938 since he was facing strong isolationist sentiment from leaders like Senators [[William Borah]] and [[Robert Taft]] who supported re-armament. By 1940, it was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] and partly to become the "Arsenal of Democracy" supporting Britain, France, China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the [[Axis Powers]], American isolationists&mdash;including [[Charles Lindbergh]] and [[America First]]&mdash;attacked the President as an irresponsible warmonger. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] coalition. On [[December 29]], [[1940]], he delivered his Arsenal of Democracy fireside chat, in which he made the case for involvement directly to the American people, and a week later he delivered his famous [[Four Freedoms]] speech in January 1941, further laying out the case for an American defense of basic rights throughout the world.

The military buildup brought spurred economic growth. By 1941, unemployment had fallen to under 1 million. There was a growing labor shortage in all the nation's major manufacturing centers, accelerating the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] of African-American workers from the Southern states, and of underemployed farmers and workers from all rural areas and small towns. The homefront was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concerns.

When [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to the Soviets. During 1941, Roosevelt also agreed that the [[U.S. Navy]] would escort [[Allied]] convoys as far east as Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines if they attacked Allied shipping within the U.S. Navy zone. Moreover, by 1941, U.S. Navy [[aircraft carrier]]s were secretly ferrying British fighter planes between the UK and the [[Mediterranean]] war zones, and the British [[Royal Navy]] was receiving supply and repair assistance at American naval bases in the [[United States]].

Thus, by mid-1941, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of "all aid short of war."<ref>Churchill, ''The Grand Alliance'' (1977) at 119.</ref> Roosevelt met with Churchill on [[August 14]] [[1941]], to develop the [[Atlantic Charter]] in what was to be the first of several [[List of World War II conferences|wartime conferences]]. In July 1941, Roosevelt ordered [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[Henry Stimson]] to begin planning for total American military involvement. The resulting "Victory Program," under the direction of [[Albert Wedemeyer]], provided the President with the estimates necessary for the total mobilization of manpower, industry, and logistics to defeat the "potential enemies" of the United States.<ref>''[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/csppp/ch11.htm The Victory Program]'', Mark Skinner Watson (1950), 331–366. </ref> The program also planned to dramatically increase aid to the Allied nations and to have ten million men in arms, half of whom would be ready for deployment abroad in 1943. Roosevelt was firmly committed to the Allied cause and these plans had been formulated before the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor.<ref>''Wedemeyer Reports!'', Albert C. Wedemeyer (1958), 63 et seq.</ref>

===Pearl Harbor===
[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan December 1941.jpg|thumb|right|Roosevelt signing the declaration of war against Japan, 8 December 1941.<!--Please do not change this back to Japan. The LOC has the image incorrectly categorized, and will hopefully be updated shortly.-->]]
{{see also|Attack on Pearl Harbor|Europe first}}
After [[Japan]] occupied northern [[French Indochina]] in late 1940, he authorized increased aid to the [[Republic of China]]. In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of Indo-China, he cut off the sales of oil. [[Japan]] thus lost more than 95% of its oil supply. Roosevelt continued negotiations with the Japanese government. Meanwhile he started shifting the long-range B-17 bomber force to the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{cite book
 | last = Williams
 | first = E. Kathleen
 | coauthors = Fellow, Louis E. Asher
 | title = Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 1. Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942
 | pages = Page 178
 | url = http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/I/AAF-I-5.html}}</ref>

On [[December 4]], [[1941]], [[The Chicago Tribune]] revealed "Rainbow Five," a top-secret war plan drawn up at President [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s order. "Rainbow Five" called for a 10-million man army invading [[Europe]] in 1943 on the side of Britain and [[Russia]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Fleming | first = Thomas | title = The New Dealers' War | publisher = Basic Books | date= 2001 | location = New York | pages = page 1}}</ref>

On [[December 6]], President Roosevelt read an intercepted Japanese message and told his assistant [[Harry Hopkins]], "This means war."<ref>{{cite book | last = Theobald | first = Robert | title = The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor | publisher = Devin-Adair | date= 1954 | location = New York | pages = page 28}}</ref> He never warned Admiral [[Husband Kimmel]] or Lt. Gen. [[Walter Short]] after reception of the message before the Pearl Harbor attack.

On [[December 7]], 1941, the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor]], destroying or damaging 16 warships, including most of the fleet's [[battleship]]s, and killing more than 2,400 American military personnel and civilians. In the weeks after the attack the Japanese conquered the [[Philippines]] and the British and Dutch colonies in [[Southeast Asia]], taking [[Singapore]] in February 1942 and advancing through [[Burma]] to the borders of [[British Raj|British India]] by May, cutting off the overland supply route to the Republic of China. Antiwar sentiment in the [[United States]] evaporated overnight and the country united behind Roosevelt. It is at this time Roosevelt gave the famous "[[Infamy Speech]]."

Despite the wave of anger that swept across the U.S. in the wake of [[Pearl Harbor]], Roosevelt decided from the start that the defeat of [[Nazi Germany]] had to take priority. On [[December 11]], [[1941]], this strategic decision was made easier to implement when Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.<ref>''Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make'', Sainsbury.</ref> Roosevelt met with Churchill in late December and planned a broad informal alliance between the U.S., Britain, China and the Soviet Union, with the objectives of halting the German advances in the Soviet Union and in North Africa; launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts; and saving China and defeating Japan.

===Internment of Japanese===
There was growing pressure to imprison Japanese and Japanese-Americans on the West Coast of the US due to fears of terrorism, espionage, and/or sabotage. On [[February 19]] [[1942]], President Roosevelt signed [[Executive Order 9066]] which imprisoned the Issei (first generation of Japanese who immigrated to the US)and their children, Nisei (who were US citizens).

===War strategy===
[[Image:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|right|[[Generalissimo]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] of China (left), Roosevelt (middle), and Winston Churchill (right) at the [[Cairo Conference]] in 1943.]]
{{see also|Origins of the Cold War}}
The "Big Three" (Roosevelt, Churchill, and [[Joseph Stalin]]), together with [[Chiang Kai-shek]] cooperated informally in which American and British troops concentrated in the West, Russian troops fought on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern front]], and Chinese, British and American troops fought in the Pacific. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high profile conferences as well as contact through diplomatic and military channels. Roosevelt guaranteed that the U.S. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy" by shipping $50 billion of [[Lend Lease]] supplies, primarily to Britain and also to the USSR, China and other Allies.

Roosevelt acknowledged that the U.S. had a traditional antipathy towards the British Empire. In ''One Christmas in Washington'',<ref>Bercuson, David, and Herwig, Holger H., ''One Christmas in Washington'', Overlook Hardcover, 2005</ref> a dinner meeting between Roosevelt and Churchill is described, in which Roosevelt is quoted as saying:
:"It's in the American tradition, this distrust, this dislike and even hatred of Britain -- the Revolution, you know, and 1812; and India and the Boer War, and all that. There are many kinds of Americans of course, but as a people, as a country, we're opposed to Imperialism&mdash;we can't stomach it."

The [[United States Department of War|U.S. War Department]] took the view that the quickest way to defeat Germany was to invade France across the English Channel. Churchill, wary of the casualties he feared this would entail, favored a more indirect approach, advancing northwards from the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Roosevelt rejected this plan. Stalin advocated opening a Western front at the earliest possible time, as the bulk of the land fighting in 1942–44 was on Soviet soil.

The Allies undertook the invasions of French [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] ([[Operation Torch]]) in November 1942, of [[Sicily]] ([[Operation Husky]]) in July 1943, and of Italy ([[Operation Avalanche]]) in September 1943. The strategic bombing campaign was escalated in 1944, pulverizing all major German cities and cutting off oil supplies. It was a 50-50 British-American operation. Roosevelt picked [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], and not [[George Marshall]], to head the Allied cross-channel invasion, [[Operation Overlord]] that began on [[D-Day]], [[June 6]], [[1944]]. Some of the most costly battles of the war ensued after the invasion, and the Allies were blocked on the German border in the "[[Battle of the Bulge]]" in December 1944. When Roosevelt died on [[April 12]], [[1945]], Allied forces were closing in on Berlin.

Meanwhile, in the Pacific, the Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Midway]]. American and [[Australia]]n forces then began a slow and costly progress through the Pacific islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan; he always insisted on Germany first.

===Post-war planning===
[[Image:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|The "Big Three" Allied leaders (left to right) at Yalta in February, 1945: Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin.]]
By late 1943, it was apparent that the Allies would ultimately defeat [[Nazi Germany]], and it became increasingly important to make high-level political decisions about the course of the war and the postwar future of [[Europe]]. Roosevelt met with [[Churchill]] and the Chinese leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] at the [[Cairo Conference]] in November 1943, and then went to [[Tehran]] to confer with Churchill and Stalin. At the [[Tehran Conference]], Roosevelt and Churchill told Stalin about the plan to invade France in 1944, and Roosevelt also discussed his plans for a postwar international organization. For his part, Stalin insisted on the redrawing the frontiers of Poland. Stalin supported Roosevelt's plan for the [[United Nations]] and promised to enter the war against Japan 90 days after Germany was defeated.

By the beginning of 1945, however, with the Allied armies advancing into Germany and the Soviets in control of Poland, the issues had to come out into the open. In February, Roosevelt, despite his steadily deteriorating health, traveled to [[Yalta]], in the Soviet [[Crimea]], to meet again with Stalin and Churchill. After the war Polish Americans criticized the [[Yalta Conference]] for legitimizing Soviet control of Eastern Europe. However, Roosevelt had already lost control of the situation, and put all his hopes on postwar deals with Stalin. A desire to maintain a good working relationship with Stalin during the war may have been a factor in Roosevelt's reluctance to agree with Churchill's proposal to aid the Poles in the [[Warsaw Uprising]] against Stalin's wishes and suppressing a report by [[George Earle]] that assigned responsibility for the [[Katyń Massacre]] to the Soviets.<ref name="warsawdocs">{{cite web |last=Roosevelt|first=Franklin |url=http://www.warsawuprising.com/doc/Roosevelt_Churchill_Stalin.htm |title=Aug. 24, 1944 message from F. D. Roosevelt to Winston Churchill |work=Warsaw Uprising Documents, Roosevelt Papers, Map Room Papers, Box 6. |publisher=Project InPosterum |quote="I do not consider it advantageous to the long range general war prospect for me to join with you in the proposed message to U.J. [Uncle Joe]."|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref>

==Fourth term and death, 1945==
===Election of 1944===
{{main|United States presidential election, 1944}}
Roosevelt, only 62 in 1944, was in declining health since at least 1940. The strain of his paralysis and the physical exertion needed to compensate for it for over 20 years had taken their toll, as had many years of stress and a lifetime of chain-smoking. He had [[high blood pressure]] and long-term [[heart disease]]. Aware of the risk that Roosevelt would die during his fourth term, the party regulars insisted that [[Henry A. Wallace]], who was seen as too pro-Soviet, be dropped as Vice President. After considering [[James F. Byrnes]] of [[South Carolina]], and being turned down by [[Indiana]] Governor [[Henry F. Schricker]], Roosevelt replaced Wallace with the little known Senator [[Harry S. Truman]]. In the [[United States presidential election, 1944|1944 election]], Roosevelt and Truman won 53% of the vote and carried 36 states, against New York Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]].

===Last days, death and memorial===
The President left the [[Yalta Conference]] on [[February 12]], [[1945]], and flew to Egypt and boarded the [[USS Quincy (CA-71)|USS Quincy]] operating on the [[Great Bitter Lake]] near the [[Suez Canal]]. Aboard ''Quincy'', the next day he met with [[Farouk I]], king of [[Egypt]], and [[Haile Selassie]], emperor of [[Ethiopia]]. On [[February 14]], he held an historic meeting with [[King Abdul Aziz]], the founder of [[Saudi Arabia]], a meeting which holds profound significance in U.S.-Saudi relations even today.<ref name="saudi">{{cite web |url= http://www.saudi-us-relations.org/articles/2005/ioi/050213-roosevelt-uss-quincy.html |title=Sailor was the piper of history 60th Anniversary of Historic Meeting between King Abdulaziz and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt |publisher=Saudi-US relations Information Service |accessdate= 2008-03-02}}</ref> After a final meeting between Roosevelt and Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]], ''Quincy'' steamed for [[Algiers]], arriving [[February 18]], at which time Roosevelt conferred with American ambassadors to Britain, [[France]] and [[Italy]].<ref name="quincy">{{cite web |url= http://www.multied.com/Navy/cruiser/Quincy.html |title=USS Quincy CA-71 |publisher=Navy History |accessdate= 2008-03-02}}</ref>

[[Image:FDR on quincy.jpg|thumb|left|Roosevelt meets with Ibn Saud onboard the [[USS Quincy (CA-71)|USS Quincy]] at the [[Great Bitter Lake]]]]When he returned to the United States, he addressed Congress on [[March 1]] about the Yalta Conference,<ref name="congress45">{{cite web |date= Mar 1, 1945 |url= http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1945/450301a.html|title=President Roosevelt's Report To Congress On the Crimea Conference |publisher= New York Times |accessdate= 2008-03-02}}</ref> and many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. But mentally he was still in full command. "The Crimean Conference," he said firmly, "ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries &mdash; and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace-loving nations will finally have a chance to join."<ref>''Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945'', Robert Dallek (1995) at 520. </ref>

During March and early April 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting a separate peace with Hitler behind his back, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates."<ref>''War in Italy 1943–1945'', Richard Lamb (1996) at 287.</ref>

On [[March 30]], [[1945]], Roosevelt went to [[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]] to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the [[United Nations]]. On the afternoon of [[April 12]], Roosevelt said, "I have a terrific headache" and was carried into his bedroom. The doctor diagnosed that he had suffered a massive [[cerebral hemorrhage]]. Later that day, he died. As [[Allen Drury]] later said, “so ended an era, and so began another.”

At the time he collapsed, Roosevelt had been sitting for a portrait painting by the artist [[Elizabeth Shoumatoff]], resulting in the famous [[Unfinished portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt|Unfinished Portrait of FDR]]. [[Lucy Mercer]], his former mistress, was with him at the time of his death, and Shoumatoff, who maintained close friendships with both Roosevelt and Mercer, rushed her away to avoid negative publicity and implications of infidelity. In his latter years at the White House, Roosevelt was increasingly overworked and his daughter [[Anna E. Roosevelt|Anna Roosevelt Boettiger]] had moved in to provide her father companionship and support. Anna had also arranged for her father to meet with the now widowed Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd. When Eleanor heard about her husband's death, she was also faced with the news that Anna had been arranging these meetings with Lucy and that Lucy had been with Franklin when he died.

[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt funeral procession 1945.jpg|thumb|right|Roosevelt's funeral procession]]Roosevelt's death was met with shock and grief across the U.S. and around the world. At a time when the press did not pry into the health or private lives of presidents, his declining health had not been known to the general public. Roosevelt had been president for more than 12 years, longer than any other person, and had led the country through some of its greatest crises to the impending defeat of Nazi Germany and to within sight of the defeat of Japan as well.

Roosevelt was interred in the town of his birth at the [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site]] at [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]] in [[Dutchess County]], [[New York]].

Less than a month after his death, on [[May 8]], came the moment Roosevelt fought for: [[Victory in Europe Day|V-E Day]]. President [[Harry Truman]], who turned 61 that day, dedicated V-E Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory, paying tribute to his commitment to ending the war in Europe.

==Civil rights issues==
{{See also|Franklin D. Roosevelt's record on civil rights}}
Roosevelt's record on civil rights has been the subject of much controversy. He was a hero to large minority groups, especially African-Americans, Catholics and Jews. African-Americans and Native Americans fared well in the New Deal relief programs, although they were not allowed to hold significant leadership roles in the [[Works Progress Administration|WPA]] and [[Civilian Conservation Corps|CCC]]. Roosevelt needed the support of Southern Democrats for his New Deal programs, and therefore decided not to push for anti-[[lynching]] legislation that might threaten his ability to pass his highest priority programs. Roosevelt was highly successful in attracting large majorities of African-Americans, Jews and Catholics into his [[New Deal coalition]]. Beginning in 1941 Roosevelt issued a series of [[FEPC|executive orders]] designed to guarantee racial, religious and ethnic minorities a fair share of the new wartime jobs. He pushed for admission of African-Americans into better positions in the military. In 1942 Roosevelt made the final decision in [[Executive Order 9066|ordering]] the [[Japanese American internment|internment]] of Japanese, Italian and German Americans (Many not released until well after the War's end) during World War II. Beginning in the 1960s he was charged<ref>In works such as Arthur Morse's ''While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy'' (New York, 1968), David S. Wyman's ''Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938–1941'' (Boston, 1968), and Henry L. Feingold's ''The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938–1945'' (New Brunswick, NJ, 1970)</ref> with not acting decisively enough to prevent or stop [[the Holocaust]] which killed 6 million Jews. Critics cite episodes such as when in 1939, the 936 Jewish refugees on board the [[SS St. Louis|SS ''St. Louis'']] were denied asylum and not allowed into the United States.

==Administration, Cabinet, and Supreme Court appointments 1933–1945==
{{Col-begin}}

{{Col-1-of-2}}
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]] || '''Franklin D. Roosevelt''' || 1933&ndash;1945
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[John Nance Garner]]''' || 1933&ndash;1941
|-
| || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1941&ndash;1945
|-
| || '''[[Harry S. Truman]]''' || 1945
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|State]] || '''[[Cordell Hull]]''' || 1933&ndash;1944
|-
| || '''[[Edward Stettinius, Jr.|Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.]]''' || 1944&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of War|War]] || '''[[George Dern|George H. Dern]]''' || 1933&ndash;1936
|-
| || '''[[Harry Hines Woodring|Harry H. Woodring]]''' || 1936&ndash;1940
|-
| || '''[[Henry L. Stimson]]''' || 1940&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]] || '''[[William Hartman Woodin|William H. Woodin]]''' || 1933&ndash;1934
|-
| || '''[[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]]''' || 1934&ndash;1945
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]] || '''[[Homer Stille Cummings|Homer S. Cummings]]''' || 1933&ndash;1939
|-
| || '''[[Frank Murphy|William F. Murphy]]''' || 1939&ndash;1940
|-
| || '''[[Robert H. Jackson]]''' || 1940&ndash;1941
|-
| || '''[[Francis Biddle|Francis B. Biddle]]''' || 1941&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Postmaster General|Post]] || '''[[James Farley|James A. Farley]]''' || 1933&ndash;1940
|-
| || '''[[Frank Comerford Walker|Frank C. Walker]]''' || 1940&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Navy]] || '''[[Claude A. Swanson]]''' || 1933&ndash;1939
|-
| || '''[[Charles Edison]]''' || 1940
|-
| || '''[[Frank Knox]]''' || 1940&ndash;1944
|-
| || '''[[James Forrestal|James V. Forrestal]]''' || 1944&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]] || '''[[Harold L. Ickes]]''' || 1933&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]] || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1933&ndash;1940
|-
| || '''[[Claude R. Wickard]]''' || 1940&ndash;1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]] || '''[[Daniel Calhoun Roper|Daniel C. Roper]]''' ||1933&ndash;1938
|-
| || '''[[Harry Hopkins|Harry L. Hopkins]]''' || 1939&ndash;1940
|-
| || '''[[Jesse Holman Jones|Jesse H. Jones]]''' || 1940&ndash;1945
|-
| || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]] || '''[[Frances Perkins|Frances C. Perkins]]''' || 1933&ndash;1945
|}

{{Col-2-of-2}}
[[Image:Fr32.gif|center|frame|Official White House Portrait]]

President Roosevelt appointed nine Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], more than any other President except [[George Washington]], who appointed eleven. By 1941, eight of the nine Justices were Roosevelt appointees.
* [[Hugo Black]] &ndash; 1937
* [[Stanley Forman Reed]] &ndash; 1938
* [[Felix Frankfurter]] &ndash; 1939
* [[William O. Douglas]] &ndash; 1939
* [[Frank Murphy]] &ndash; 1940
* [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] ([[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]]) &ndash; 1941
* [[James Francis Byrnes]] &ndash; 1941
* [[Robert H. Jackson]] &ndash; 1941
* [[Wiley Blount Rutledge]] &ndash; 1943

{{further|[[List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States]]}}

{{Col-end}}

==Legacy==
[[Image:FDR Memorial wall.jpg|thumb|The Four Freedoms engraved on a wall at the [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial]]
in Washington]]
[[Image:FDR Grave.JPG|thumb|right|Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt's gravesite in the Rose Garden in their Hyde Park home.]]

Roosevelt has been consistently ranked as one of the greatest U.S. presidents in [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|historical rankings]].<ref>Thomas A. Bailey, ''Presidential Greatness'' (1966), a non quantitative appraisal by leading historian;<br /> Degregorio, William A. ''The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents.'' 4th ed. New York: Avenel, 1993. Contains the results of the 1962 and 1982 surveys;<br /> Charles and Richard Faber ''The American Presidents Ranked by Performance'' (2000);<br /> Felzenberg, Alvin S. “There You Go Again: Liberal Historians and the New York Times Deny Ronald Reagan His Due,” ''Policy Review'', March—April 1997.;<br /> Melvin G. Holli. ''The American Mayor: The Best & the Worst Big-City Leaders'' (1999);<br /> Miller, Nathan. ''Star-Spangled Men America's Ten Worst Presidents'' (1999);<br /> Murray, Robert K. and Tim H. Blessing. ''Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald Reagan'' (1994);<br /> Pfiffner, James P. ; "Ranking the Presidents: Continuity and Volatility" ''White House Studies'', Vol. 3, 2003 pp 23+;<br /> Ridings, William J., Jr. and Stuart B. McIver. ''Rating the Presidents: A Ranking of U.S. leaders, from the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent''. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-8065-1799-9.;<br /> Schlesinger, Jr. Arthur M. "Ranking the Presidents: From Washington to Clinton," ''Political Science Quarterly'' (1997) 112:179-90;<br /> Skidmore, Max J. ''Presidential Performance: A Comprehensive Review'' (2004);<br /> Skidmore, Max J. "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt" ''White House Studies''. Volume: 1. Issue: 4. 2001. pp 495+.;<br /> Taranto, James and Leonard Leo, eds. ''Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and Worst in the White House''. New York: Wall Street Journal Books, 2004. ISBN 0-7432-5433-3, for Federalist Society surveys.;<br /> Vedder, Richard and Gallaway, Lowell, "Rating Presidential Performance" in ''Reassessing the Presidency: The Rise of the Executive State and the Decline of Freedom'' ed. John V. Denson, Mises Institute, 2001. ISBN 0-945466-29-3</ref>

A 1999 survey by [[C-SPAN]] found that by a wide margin academic historians consider [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]] and Roosevelt the three greatest presidents, consistent with other surveys.<ref>[http://www.americanpresidents.org/survey/historians/performance.asp American Presidents] For example, see:
*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110007243 Opinion Journal]
*[http://www.gvsu.edu/hauenstein/tournament/ Gvsu.edu], website of [[Grand Valley State University]]
*''[[The Washington Post]]'' found Washington, Lincoln and Roosevelt to be the only "great" presidents.</ref> Roosevelt is the sixth [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|most admired]] person from the 20th century by US citizens, according to [[Gallup Poll|Gallup]].<ref name="Leuchtenburg">Leuchtenburg, William E. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/fdryears.htm ''The FDR Years: On Roosevelt and His Legacy'', Chapter 1], Columbia University Press, 1997</ref>

Both during and after his terms, [[Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt|critics of Roosevelt]] questioned not only [[Critics of the New Deal|his policies and positions]], but also the consolidation of power that occurred because of his lengthy tenure as president, his service during two major crises, and his enormous popularity. The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining [[liberalism]] for coming generations.<ref>[[Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.|Schlesinger, Arthur Jr]], [http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/schleslib.html Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans] from ''The Politics of Hope'', Riverside Press, Boston, 1962.</ref>

Roosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on the world stage, with pronouncements such as his [[Four Freedoms]] speech, forming a basis for the active role of the United States in the war and beyond. The prominence of accused spies such as [[Alger Hiss]] and [[Harry Dexter White]] in Roosevelt's government has, however, led some to accuse Roosevelt's administration of being too accommodating of Stalin.

After Franklin's death, Eleanor Roosevelt continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the [[United Nations]] and championing civil rights. Many members of his administration played leading roles in the administrations of [[Harry S Truman|Truman]], [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]], each of whom embraced Roosevelt's political legacy.<ref>William E Leuchtenburg, ''In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush'' (2001)</ref>

Roosevelt's [[Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site|home in Hyde Park]] is now a [[National historic site]] and home to his [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum|Presidential library]]. His [[Little White House|retreat]] at Warm Springs, Georgia is a museum operated by the state of Georgia. His summer retreat on [[Campobello Island]] is maintained by the governments of both Canada and the United States as [[Roosevelt Campobello International Park]]; the island is accessible via the [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge]].

The [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial|Roosevelt Memorial]] is located in Washington, D.C. next to the [[Jefferson Memorial]] on the [[Tidal Basin]], and Roosevelt's image appears on the [[Roosevelt dime]]. Many parks, schools and roads, as well as an [[USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)|aircraft carrier]] and a [[Franklin D. Roosevelt (Paris Métro)|Paris subway station]], have been named in his honor.

Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", said FDR's biographer [[Jean Edward Smith]] in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees."<ref>Jean Edward Smith, ''FDR''. New York: Random House, 2007 (ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1).</ref>

==Media==
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==See also==
* [[Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
* ''[[Sunrise at Campobello]]''
* [[List of coupled cousins]]
* [[List of United States Presidents who died in office]]
* [[Arthurdale]]
* ''[[Warm Springs (film)|Warm Springs]]''
* [[Great Depression in the United States]]
* [[World War II]]
* [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|3}}

===Primary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* Bureau of the Census, ''Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1951'' (1951) full of useful data; [http://www2.census.gov/prod2/statcomp/documents/1946-01.pdf online]
* Bureau of the Census, ''Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970'' (1976)
* Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds.; ''Public Opinion, 1935–1946'' (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls from USA
* Gallup, George Horace, ed. ''The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971'' 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers.
* Loewenheim, Francis L. et al, eds; ''Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence'' (1975)
* Moley, Raymond. ''After Seven Years'' (1939), memoir by key Brain Truster
* Nixon, Edgar B. ed. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs'' (3 vol 1969), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.
* Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. ''The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only (no letters); covers 1928–1945.
* Zevin, B. D. ed.; ''Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945'' (1946) selected speeches
*[http://www.lexisnexis.com/academic/2upa/Aph/fdrDocumentary.asp ''Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration''] 20 vol. available in some large academic libraries.
*Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Myron C. Taylor, ed. ''Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope [[Pius XII]]''. Prefaces by Pius XII and [[Harry Truman]]. Kessinger Publishing (1947, reprinted, 2005). ISBN 1-4191-6654-9
{{Refend}}

===Biographies===
{{Refbegin}}
* Black, Conrad. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom'', 2003.
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Roosevelt'' (1956, 1970), 2 vol; interpretive scholarly biography, emphasis on politics; vol 2 is on war years
* Coker, Jeffrey W. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Biography.'' Greenwood, 2005. 172 pp.
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny'' (1990), One-volume scholarly biography; covers entire life
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (4 vol 1952–73), the most detailed scholarly biography; ends in 1934.
* Davis, Kenneth S. ''FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1982–1928'' (1972)
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II'' (1995)
* Jenkins, Roy. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt'' (2003) short bio from British perspective
* Lash, Joseph P. ''Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers'' (1971), history of a marriage.
* Morgan, Ted, ''FDR: A biography'', (1985), a popular biography
* Ward, Geoffrey C. ''Before The Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882–1905'' (1985); ''A First Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt'', (1992), covers 1905–1932.
{{Refend}}

===Scholarly secondary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* Alter, Jonathan. ''The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope'' (2006), popular history
* Beasley, Maurine, et al eds. ''The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101379496 (2001) online]
* Bellush, Bernard; ''Franklin D. Roosevelt as Governor of New York'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99016750 (1955) online]
* Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times.'' (1985). encyclopedia
* Kennedy, David M. ''Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945.'' (1999), wide-ranging survey of national affairs
* Leuchtenberg, William E. Franklin D. ''Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940.'' (1963). A standard interpretive history of era.
* Leuchtenburg, William E. ''In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman'' (2001), his long-term influence
* Leuchtenburg, William E. "Showdown on the Court." ''Smithsonian'' 2005 36(2): 106–113. Issn: 0037-7333 Fulltext: at Ebsco
* McMahon, Kevin J. ''Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race: How the Presidency Paved the Road to Brown.'' U. of Chicago Press, 2004. 298 pp.
* Parmet, Herbert S. and Marie B. Hecht; ''Never Again: A President Runs for a Third Term'' (1968) on 1940 election
* Ritchie, Donald A,; ''Electing FDR: The New Deal Campaign of 1932'' U. Press of Kansas, 2007.
* Rosen, Elliot A. ''Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery.'' U. Press of Virginia, 2005. 308 pp.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., ''The Age of Roosevelt'', 3 vols, (1957–1960), the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR. Online at [http://image.ulib.org/cgi-bin/handlers/handle8?call=15522.20704 vol 2] [http://delta.ulib.org/zoom/record.html?id=15523 vol 3]
* Shaw, Stephen K.; Pederson, William D.; and Williams, Frank J., eds. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Transformation of the Supreme Court.'' Sharpe, 2004.
* Sitkoff, Harvard, ed. ''Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated'' (1985)
* {{cite book
  | last = Hakim
  | first = Joy
  | authorlink = 
  | coauthors = 
  | title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz
  | publisher = Oxford University Press
  | date = 1995
  | location = New York
  | pages = 100-104
  | url = 
  | doi = 
  | id = 
  | isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }}
{{Refend}}

===Foreign policy and World War II===
{{Refbegin}}
* Beschloss, Michael R. ''The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945'' (2002).
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom'' (1970), vol 2 covers the war years.
* Wayne S. Cole, "American Entry into World War II: A Historiographical Appraisal," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 43, No. 4. (Mar., 1957), pp. 595–617.
* Dallek, Robert. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945'' (2nd ed. 1995) broad survey of foreign policy
* Glantz, Mary E. ''FDR and the Soviet Union: The President's Battles over Foreign Policy.'' U. Press of Kansas, 2005. 253 pp.
* Heinrichs, Waldo. ''Threshold of War. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II'' (1988).
* Kimball, Warren. ''The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as World Statesman'' (1991)
* Langer, William and S. Everett Gleason. ''The Challenge to Isolation, 1937–1940'' (1952). ''The Undeclared War, 1940–1941'' (1953). highly influential two-volume semi-official history
* Larrabee, Eric. '' Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War''. History of how FDR handled the war
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II'' (1994). Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders
* Woods, Randall Bennett. ''A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941–1946'' (1990)
{{Refend}}

===Criticisms===
{{Refbegin}}
* Barnes, Harry Elmer. ''Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: A Critical Examination of the Foreign Policy of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Its Aftermath'' (1953). "revisionist" blames FDR for inciting Japan to attack.
* Best, Gary Dean. ''The Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years'' (2002) criticizes intellectuals who supported FDR
* Best, Gary Dean. ''Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938'' Praeger Publishers. 1991; summarizes newspaper editorials
* Conkin, Paul K. ''New Deal'' (1975), critique from the left
* Doenecke, Justus D. and Stoler, Mark A. ''Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945.'' Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 248 pp.
* Flynn, John T. ''The Roosevelt Myth'' (1948), former Socialist condemns all aspects of FDR
* Moley, Raymond. ''After Seven Years'' (1939) insider memoir by Brain Truster who became conservative
* Russett, Bruce M. ''No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II'' 2nd ed. (1997) says US should have let USSR and Germany destroy each other
* Plaud, Joseph J. ''Historical Perspectives on Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Foreign Policy, and the Holocaust'' (2005).[http://www.fdrheritage.org/fdr&holocaust.htm Archived at the FDR American Heritage Center Museum Website]
* Powell, Jim. ''FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression.'' (2003), a rhetorical attack on all FDR's policies
* Robinson, Greg. ''By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans'' (2001) says FDR's racism was primarily to blame.
* Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. ''Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939'' (2006) compares populist and paternalist features
* Smiley, Gene. ''Rethinking the Great Depression'' (1993) short essay by economist who blames both Hoover and FDR
* Wyman, David S. ''The Abandonment Of The Jews: America and the Holocaust'' Pantheon Books, 1984. Attacks Roosevelt for passive complicity in allowing Holocaust to happen
{{Refend}}
===FDR's rhetoric===
{{Refbegin}}
* Braden, Waldo W., and Earnest Brandenburg. "Roosevelt's Fireside Chats." ''Communication Monographs''' 22 (1955): 290–302.
* Buhite, Russell D. and David W. Levy, eds. ''FDR's Fireside Chats'' (1993)
* Craig, Douglas B. ''Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940'' (2005)
* Crowell, Laura. "Building the "Four Freedoms" Speech." ''Communication Monographs'' 22 (1952): 266–283.
* Crowell, Laura. "Franklin D. Roosevelt's Audience Persuasion in the 1936 Campaign." ''Communication Monographs'' 17 (1950): 48–64
* Houck, Davis W. ''F. D. R. and Fear Itself: The First Inaugural Address.'' Texas A&M UP, 2002.
* Houck, Davis W. ''Rhetoric as Currency: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Great Depression.'' Texas A&M UP, 2001.
* Ryan, Halford Ross. "Roosevelt's First Inaugural: A Study of Technique." ''Quarterly Journal of Speech'' 65 (1979): 137–149.
* Ryan, Halford Ross. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt's Rhetorical Presidency.'' Greenwood Press, 1988.
* Stelzner, Hermann G. "'War Message,' December 8, 1941: An Approach to Language." ''Communication Monographs'' 33 (1966): 419–437.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Franklin D. Roosevelt}}
{{wikisource author|Franklin Delano Roosevelt}}
{{Commons|Franklin Delano Roosevelt}}
{{portalpar|Military of the United States|Naval Jack of the United States.svg|65}}
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/fdroosevelt Extensive essay on FDR and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]
* [http://www.fdrheritage.org/ Franklin D. Roosevelt American Heritage Center Museum] One of the largest FDR-related resources in the world
* [http://newdeal.feri.org/ New Deal Network] massive collection of photos and primary sources
* [http://www.citr.auckland.ac.nz/~rklette/FateOfOurWorld/EHerbrig_Interv2005.pdf] Interview with Erika Herbrig about the policy of FDR
*[http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/ FDR cartoon archive]
*[http://www.nps.gov/hofr/ Hyde Park NY Home of FDR]
*[http://www.nps.gov/roca/ Campobello Island Summer Home of FDR]
*[http://www.fdr-littlewhitehouse.org/ Warm Springs GA FDR Retreat]
*[http://www.nps.gov/frde/ FDR Memorial Washington DC]
* [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ The Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]
** [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/audio.html Audio Archive]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data.php Academic Data Related to the Roosevelt Administration]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-767 Roosevelt at Warm Springs]

{{Col-begin}}

{{Col-1-of-2}}
===Speeches and quotations: audio and transcripts===
* [http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/digitalarchive/speechDetail/24 Full audio of over 40 Roosevelt speeches (including a full set of fireside chats) via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/scripps/digitalarchive/presidentialrecordings/roosevelt/index Roosevelt's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)]
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt famous quotes]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project] at [[University of California at Santa Barbara]]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php Public Papers of the Presidents: Franklin D. Roosevelt]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14683 1934], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14890 1935], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15095 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15336 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15517 1938], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15684 1939], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15856 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16092 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16253 1942], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16386 1943], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16518 1944]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Written Messages]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16595 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/inaugurals.php Inaugural Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14473 1933], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15349 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16022 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16607 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/fireside.php Fireside Chats]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Presidential Elections]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1932 1932], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1936 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1940 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1944 1944]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/medialist.php?presid=32 32 Audio/Video Clips of FDR]
* [http://www.evtv1.com/index.asp-itemnum-220 FDR - Day of Infamy video clip] (2 min.)
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=RooseveltFD Audio clips of speeches]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos1.htm First Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos2.htm Second Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos3.htm Third Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos4.htm Fourth Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.hpol.org/fdr/chat/ Court "Packing" Speech March 9, 1937]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20060903014629/http://history.acusd.edu/gen/text/us/fdr1940.html University of Virginia graduating class speech ("Stab in the Back" speech) June 10, 1940]

{{Col-2-of-2}}

===Other===
*[http://www.potus.com/fdroosevelt.html IPL POTUS &mdash; Franklin Delano Roosevelt]
*[http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/index.html An archive of political cartoons from the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt]
*[http://www.internet-esq.com/ussaugusta/atlantic/index.htm FDR at the Atlantic Conference]
*[http://www.davidpietrusza.com/FDR-links.html Franklin D. Roosevelt Links]
*[http://rooseveltinstitution.org/about/franklin_roosevelt On Franklin Roosevelt's progressive vision] from [http://rooseveltinstitution.org the Roosevelt Institution], a student [[think tank]] inspired in part by Franklin Roosevelt.
*{{gutenberg author| id=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt | name=Franklin D. Roosevelt}}
*[http://www.archive.org/details/happywarrioralfr006717mbp ''The Happy Warrior'' a biography of Alfred Smith by Franklin D. Roosevelt]
{{Col-end}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alfred E. Smith]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Governor of New York]]|years=1929 &ndash; 1932}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Herbert H. Lehman]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Herbert Hoover]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States]]|years=March 4, 1933 &ndash; April 12, 1945}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Harry S. Truman]]}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party vice presidential candidate]]|years=[[United States presidential election, 1920|1920]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Charles W. Bryan]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alfred E. Smith]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party presidential candidate]]|years=[[United States presidential election, 1932|1932]], [[United States presidential election, 1936|1936]], [[United States presidential election, 1940|1940]], [[United States presidential election, 1944|1944]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Harry S. Truman]]}}
{{end}}

{{Franklin D. Roosevelt}}
{{New Deal}}
{{USPresidents}}
{{USDemPresNominees}}
{{NYGovernors}}
{{USDemVicePresNominees}}
{{Time Persons of the Year 1927-1950}}
{{featured article}}
{{FD Roosevelt cabinet}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Roosevelt, Franklin Delano
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=32nd [[President of the United States]]
|DATE OF BIRTH={{birth date|1882|1|30|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]
|DATE OF DEATH={{death date|1945|4|12|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roosevelt, Franklin Delano}}
[[Category:1882 births]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:American Episcopalians]]
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[[Category:Americans with Huguenot ancestry]]
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[[Category:Deaths by cerebral hemorrhage]]
[[Category:Delano family]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1932]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1936]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1940]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1944]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) vice presidential nominees]]
[[Category:Duchess County, NY politicians]]
[[Category:Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration]]
[[Category:Franklin D. Roosevelt|*]]
[[Category:Governors of New York]]
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[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:New York lawyers]]
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[[Category:People associated with the Boy Scouts of America]]
[[Category:People from Dutchess County, New York]]
[[Category:People with paraplegia]]
[[Category:Philatelists]]
[[Category:Politicians with physical disabilities]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Roosevelt family]]
[[Category:Time magazine Persons of the Year]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders]]

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